我的《信報》文章(2022年11月23日A13頁)
刊登後的改良加長版
《「讓瑞典再次偉大」 與 支持特朗普的奥丁鬥士》
https://www1.hkej.com/dailynews/article/id/3306827
「瑞典優先」及「讓瑞典再次偉大」是取得空前重大勝利的瑞典民主黨在2022年9月議會選舉前高喊的兩大口號。
[Note 1]
11月15日，特朗普宣布參加2024年美國總統選舉。而兩週前，眾議院議長佩洛西的丈夫保羅遭人以鎚(hammer)襲擊，施暴者曾高喊2020年國會山騷亂時的口號。
[Note 2]
倘若瑞典民主黨的口號，教你想起尚未受基督教義影響的維京人;
如果保羅佩洛西遭鎚襲，教你記起2011年挪威77人死66人傷事件的行兇者以「雷神之鎚」(Thor’s Mjölnir) 為其手槍命名;
又如果你早就注意到《魔戒》2001-3電影三部曲、《權力遊戲》2011-9、《雷神》2011-22電影系列這類廣受歡迎的影視，其創作靈感也全是源於「前基督時代」(pre-Christian era) 、暴戾剛烈的北歐神話(Norse Mythology)，你可能已感到一股暗湧正在形成。
[Note 3]
奧丁(Odin)是古北歐文明（大約從公元前 1000年青銅時代到公元 1000年維京時代）的神靈之一。奧丁在神話中代表智慧、戰爭、死亡，以長矛(Gungnir) 和指環(Draupnir )作為權力的象徵。
雷神是奧丁的兒子，以鎚為武器，被尊為家園的守護神。
加州大學古北歐民俗學教授 John Lindow 指出，奧丁、雷神可能真有其人，由於在政治及軍事上取得卓越成就，包括攻佔現時的德國、丹麥、英國、冰島等地，並留下部分族人在各區生活，而被後代尊為神靈(Odin在古英語變成 Wōden, 之後演化出 Wednesday; Thor演化出 Thursday，另Bēowulf 近年演化出Beowulf Trump)。
Monday Norse
god Máni
Tuesday Norse
god Tyr
Wednesday Norse
god Odin
Thursday Norse
god Thor
Friday Norse
goddess Frigg or Freyja
Saturday Norse
goddess Sigyn
Sunday Norse
goddess Sól
*** 所有這些星期天的命名都與《舊約聖經》七日創世論無關 ***
[Note 4]
奧丁主義是對奧丁及北歐諸神的崇敬。雖然有些歐洲人簡單地視之為另類信仰(有點類似華人供奉土地、天后)，但更多人，尤其是那些認為本身屬於雅利安族(Aryan Race)的人，自19世紀始逐漸把它變成種族化(racialized)的教義。這類奧丁主義者深信，若非受限於猶太基督教的「原罪」概念(Judeo-Christian
Original Sin)，白種人早已統治了全球。
[Note 5]
為了重振白人的榮耀，一些激進分子鼓吹暴力革命，推翻當時的社會倫理秩序; 而基於他們的犯罪行為、暴力傾向，在歐美或被監禁，或被主流媒體禁聲。
[Note 6]
政治突破在2010年出現，由Gregory Johnson (1971-）領導的白人民族主義(White Nationalist)運動在兩方面進行了改變。
首先，隨着對大量非白人移民進入歐美及 LGBT問題受到普遍關注，奧丁主義者不再以基督徒為敵；
相反，他們提出「白人無疚」(No White Guilt)，將白人民族主義視為一種政治運動，而非宗教運動; 最終的政治目標是不同信仰的白種人共享一個排外、自由、安全、豐裕的家園。
其次，奧丁主義者不再使用早已被主流媒體禁止的仇恨措辭，而是一方面聚焦移民衍生的社會實際問題，另一方面積極地利用社交媒體、網絡平台、影視節目傳播他們的理念。
[Note 7]
由於商業或某些不為人知的原因，以北歐神話時代為故事基礎的電影和電視劇從 21 世紀初開始陸續上映;最重要的是，它們在全球吸引了數以百萬計忠實觀眾。
不僅前述影視娛樂節目續集不斷，半官方廣播機構也提供類似節目，例如2013-20 年「歷史頻道」的《維京人》、2018-22 年 BBC 的《最後的王國》。所有這些流行文化作品都被信手拈來，成為奧丁主義者在全球各地用作推廣、洗腦的工具。也正因此，在美國曾引發一場關於基督徒應否觀看《權力遊戲》的爭論。
[Note 8]
2017年8月，「團結右翼集會」在美國維吉尼亞州夏洛茨維爾舉行，大量參與者攜帶維京盾牌裝飾、炫耀奧丁圖騰(Valknut)紋身。
2021年，與共和黨關係密切的「保守政治行動會議」 舉行大會(CPAC，1974 年成立，歷任共和黨總統均出席並發言)時，更以奧丁符文作為講壇的地板圖案。
此等現象導致許多中世紀歷史學家批評他們歪曲、騎劫了維京文化，單是在《中世紀》這個在線史學博客中，就有多達45篇長文予以譴責。
[Note 9]
但宣傳方法的改變確實收效。也同樣在2010年，瑞典民主黨(於1988年成立)開始減少「政治不正確」的公開措辭，轉向擴大在線網絡活動，並參加國會競選。獲得的全國選票從 2010 年的
5.7% 增加到 2014 年的 9.7%、2018 年的 12.9%、今年的20.5%，成為10月17日成立的右翼政府的造王者;黨員分別直接領導四個重要的國會委員會 — 司法、外交、經濟、勞工。
[Note 10]
此亮麗成績是瑞典民主黨及其盟友，尤其是「北歐抵抗運動」(NMR) 及源於芬蘭的Soldiers of Odin在2010年後一系列戰略變革的累積結果(後者於澳洲、比利時、加拿大、德國、荷蘭、丹麥、挪威、瑞典、愛沙尼亞、美國、英國、葡萄牙、西班牙已成立分部)。
[Note 11]
他們一方面加深了主流媒體對移民和街頭犯罪的公眾關注；
另一方面，利用互聯網擴闊了對千禧一代的影響範圍，全年24小時不停廣播19個網絡電視電台頻道、內容包括白人自豪音樂、模仿黨衛軍合唱團視頻、大量漫畫等，觀眾、聽眾估計在三十萬以上。
[Note 12]
對此，至少有兩點必須予以警惕。
第一，華盛頓國會山騷亂，揭示這些高喊「以比武作審判」(Trial by Combat,也是源於古北歐時代並通過電視劇《權力的遊戲》廣為流傳的) 口號、露出臂上奧丁圖騰紋身的特朗普支持者，願意採取實際行動，而不僅僅是空談。
[Note 13]
但特朗普這次即使獲得黨內提名，勝算卻不高。因為民主黨在希拉莉受挫後，通過大量志願者四年的努力，已在關鍵的搖擺州建立了大量人際網絡，獲得過去數十年對投票冷漠的人的支持，以郵寄方式投票。今年11月的中期選舉表明這個系統仍然運作良好。到特朗普再次敗選之後，這些奧丁鬥士將如何反應是一個關注點。
[Note 14]
第二，奧丁主義者在瑞典(人口 1,042萬)的成功，反映白人民族主義思想，正在通過大眾流行文化的感染、
社交媒體網絡的滲透，
迅速擴散。儘管西歐和北美地更大、人更多，產生效果需要更長的時間，但這種趨勢令人擔憂。
雖然沒有必要譴責白人民族主義，因為其他種族如阿拉伯人、斯拉夫人都有類似的自強意志;但假如他們傾向於使用武力來鞏固或擴展霸權而非合作共贏，則防人之心不可無。
Notes
[Note 1]
2022
0908 Politico
https://www.politico.eu/article/sweden-democrat-far-right-party-cusp-power/
‘Make Sweden great again.’ Far right
on the cusp of power
Support
for Sweden Democrats is surging ahead of a general election on September 11.
HELSINGBORG,
Sweden — Cheers and applause greeted far-right Sweden Democrats (SD) leader
Jimmie Åkesson as he addressed a boisterous pre-election rally in the southern
port city of Helsingborg.
A
car slowed on the nearby thoroughfare and a man shouted “Go Jimmie” through the
open driver’s side window so loudly that Åkesson briefly stopped speaking and
laughed.
“It
is time for the Swedish people to give us a chance,” Åkesson told the crowd of
several hundred on a recent weekday evening. “It’s
time to give us a chance to make Sweden great again.”
2022
0915 AP News
Vowing to put “Sweden
first” and
to “make Sweden good again,” the slogans of party leader Jimmie Akesson echo those that have
resonated with ex-President Donald Trump’s supporters in the United States.
Steve Bannon, Trump’s longtime ally, also hailed the Sweden Democrats’ surge on his
“War Room” podcast, calling the shift to the right in traditionally progressive
Sweden a “political earthquake.” He praised the Sweden Democrats because “they
want their borders, they want their sovereignty.”
Bannon described Sweden as a destroyed society — a right-wing trope that
exaggerates the scale of Sweden’s challenges.
[Note 2]
2022
1116
www2.hkej.com/instantnews/current/article/3302113/特朗普宣布參加2024年美國總統選舉
美國前總統特朗普宣布參加2024年美國總統選舉
2022 1029
std.stheadline.com/daily/article/2493745/日報-國際-佩洛西丈夫-家中遭闖入者錘擊
（星島日報報道）美國聯邦眾議院議長佩洛西在加州三藩市的寓所周五凌晨遭人闖入，她八十二歲的的丈夫保羅（Paul Pelosi）遭闖入者以錘子暴力襲擊，頭部和身體受傷，目前在醫院接受治療。施襲男子已被拘捕，警方稱，他是針對佩洛西夫婦的住所犯案，施襲前曾喊：「佩洛西在哪裏？」
[Note 3]
2012
0411 Science Norway
“Norse
gods in a crusade for Europe”
Anders
Behring Breivik, charged with the bombing and mass shooting in Norway last
summer, named his gun "Mjolner", after the
norse god Thor's hammer.
Breivik
also claims to be an “Odinist”.
The
terrorist argued in his manifesto that European Christianity has become weak
and feminized as a result of modernism and multiculturalism.
He
believes Europe is watering down its own cultural traditions and inherited
values, turning the other cheek and is thus being invaded and raped by the enemy.
"In
pre-Christian Norse belief – which Breivik calls “Odinism” – he finds an
alternative strength and masculine aggression, which can be used to defend
Europe’s honour and supreme identity," says theology professor Jone
Salomonsen of the University of Oslo.
As
a result, Breivik calls for a strategic union of Christianity and paganism in
order to mobilise Europeans for battle.
[Note 4]
p.
19, 22-3 in
John
Lindow (2002), “Norse Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Heros, Rituals, and
Belief”, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Wiki,
Anglo-Saxon Paganism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism
Wiki, Beowulf
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf
Beowulf
(/ˈbeɪəwʊlf/;[1] Old English: Bēowulf [ˈbeːowuɫf]) is an Old English epic poem
in the tradition of Germanic heroic legend consisting of 3,182 alliterative
lines. It is one of the most important and most often translated works of Old
English literature. The date of composition is a matter of contention among
scholars; the only certain dating is for the manuscript, which was produced
between 975 and 1025.
2015
0917
In
the Middle, “Beowulf Trump and Lady Fiorina: GOP Debates and Meieval Rhetoric”
https://www.inthemedievalmiddle.com/2015/09/beowulf-trump-and-lady-fiorina-gop.html
2019
Oct 10
https://betterlivingthroughbeowulf.com/beowulf-transcends-tolkiens-racism/
My
son Toby Wilson-Bates just alerted me to a Dorothy Kim article about how J.R.R. Tolkien, even as he brought general attention
to Beowulf, also circumscribed how people
interpreted it. The Oxford don could only see it as a
white, male hero story and, more disturbingly, he shut out scholars of other
races who might have interpreted it differently.
”
Tolkien, she argues in an elliptical and not altogether convincing manner,
regarded Grendel as a black man. I’m less skeptical that his concern was
“solidifying white Englishness and English identity.” While he “abhorred
fascism and antisemitism,” he “upheld the English
empire’s white supremacy.”
[Note 5]
1998
0315 SPLC 1998 Winter Issue
“New
Brand of Racist Odinist Religion on the March”
p.102-27 Ch. 4 Authentic Whiteness and Protectionism in Racialist Odinism, in
Damon
T. Berry (2017), “Blood & Faith: Christianity in American White
Nationalism”, New York: Syracuse University Press.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aryan_race
這個詞在 19 世紀被各種種族主義和反猶太主義作家採用，包括 Arthur de Gobineau、Richard Wagner 和 Houston Stewart Chamberlain，[12] 他們的科學種族主義影響了後來的納粹種族意識形態。 [13] 到 1930 年代，這個概念已與納粹主義和北歐主義聯繫在一起，[14] 並被用來支持雅利安主義的白人至上主義意識形態，該意識形態將雅利安人描繪成“優等種族”，[15] 而非雅利安人則被視為種族歧視 劣等（Untermensch，lit. 'subhuman'）和將被消滅的生存威脅。 [16] 在納粹德國，這些思想構成了導致大屠殺的國家意識形態的重要組成部分。
[Note 6]
2017
0525 Reveal News
“An
ancient Nordic religion is inspiring white supremacist terror”
https://revealnews.org/article/an-ancient-nordic-religion-is-inspiring-white-supremacist-jihad/
2017
1006 Journal of Religion in Europe
“Northern
Gods for Northern Folk: Racial Identity and Right-wing Ideology among Britain’s
Folkish Heathens”
Author:
Ethan Doyle White
https://brill.com/view/journals/jre/10/3/article-p241_241.xml
[Note 7]
p.183-8
in
Damon
T. Berry (2017), “Blood & Faith: Christianity in American White
Nationalism”, New York: Syracuse University Press.
2017
0904 The Conversation
“Scandinavia:
the radical right meets the mainstream”
https://theconversation.com/scandinavia-the-radical-right-meets-the-mainstream-78714
2021
0113 CBS News
“No
White Guilt”
2021
0205 Ministry Link
“No
White Guilt”
https://ministrylink.org/no-white-guilt/
[Note 8]
Wiki,
History Channel’s Vikings TV
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikings_(TV_series)
Vikings
is a historical drama television series created and written by Michael Hirst
for the History channel, a Canadian network.
Wiki,
BBC’s The Last Kingdom TV
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Last_Kingdom_(TV_series)
The
Last Kingdom is a British historical fiction television series based on Bernard
Cornwell's The Saxon Stories series of novels.
2021
0115
University
of Notre Dame, Medieval Studies Research Blog
“Marauders
in the US Capitol: Alt-right Viking Wannabes & Weaponized Medievalism”
Vikings
are a very hot topic right now; there’s no question. Within the thriving genre
of medievalism, Vikings have recently proven an especially sexy and profitable
subject for contemporary pseudo-historical fiction, particularly in television
series like the History Channel’s Vikings (2013) and Netflix’s The Last Kingdom
(2015).
2013
0604 USA Today
“Can
a Christian watch 'Game of Thrones'?”
https://www.usatoday.com/story/life/tv/2013/06/04/game-of-thrones-christianity/2389553/
Christians
are debating whether they should watch HBO's hit show
Some
say series only virtue is depicting how the world would look without Christ
Others
say the show like the Bible finds unlikely heroes among the shunned
The
show is certainly entertaining, almost addictively so, and as "Games of
Thrones" wraps up its third season on Sunday (June 9), the ratings reflect
that popularity: a record of more than 5.5 million viewers have followed the
ruthless struggles for power among the teeming clans of Westeros, the
medieval-looking world created by fantasy novelist George R.R. Martin.
2015
0615 Christian Post
“Is Game of Thrones anti-Catholic?”
https://www.christianpost.com/news/is-game-of-thrones-anti-catholic.html
Sunday
night, viewers witnessed one of the most shocking moments on "Game of
Thrones" - a naked Cersei Lannister taking a penitential "Walk of
Atonement" through the capital of Westeros. Earlier this season, we also
saw religious authorities arrest the queen's brother for sodomy. Author George
R. R. Martin has confirmed that he based the Faith of the Seven on the Roman
Catholic Church, so all this begs the question, "Is Game of Thrones
Anti-Catholic?"
[Note 9]
2022
0422 The Guardian
“Norse
code: are white supremacists reading too much the Northman?”
The
far right’s love of Nordic lore goes back to the Third Reich and beyond, – and
the connection is stronger than ever. The deadly “Unite the Right” rally in Charlottesville,
Virginia, in 2017 was full of Nordic symbols on banners and shields.
Anders Breivik, the Norwegian extremist who murdered 77 people in 2011, carved
the names of Norse gods into his guns. The shooter at
the 2019 massacre in Christchurch, New Zealand, drew Norse insignia on his
possessions and wrote “see you in Valhalla” on his Facebook page.
2021 0130 The Wild
Hunt: Pagan News and Perspectives
“American Heathenry and Cultural Appropriation
After
photographs and video from the January 6th attack on the U.S. Capitol showed
one of the participants having tattoos of Thor’s hammer, the World Tree, and the so-called
Valknut, American practitioners of Ásatrú and Heathenry who publicly
self-identify as “not racist” issued public statements or communicated their
responses to members of the media.
2021 0227 The Wild
Hunt: Pagan News and Perspectives
“Editorial: Yes, that is an Odal Rune”
https://wildhunt.org/2021/02/editorial-yes-that-is-an-odal-rune.html
This
weekend marks the annual meeting of the Conservative Political Action
Conference (CPAC), this year being held in Orlando, Florida. CPAC is a major
point in the political calendar for American conservatism, featuring the most
powerful members of the Republican party. Donald Trump
is expected to speak on Sunday, where he will undoubtedly argue that he
remains the leader of the Republican Party and the American conservative
movement, despite his loss in the November 2020 elections.
The
wings of the CPAC stage lead nowhere – they do
not lead to stairs, and the stage’s entrances and exits are in the rear,
flanking the back wall. The red triangle toward the rear of the stage similarly
serves no apparent functional use. This means that the set was intentionally
designed this way, not for its utility, but for its visual appeal – an image
that looks, unquestionably, like the odal rune.
The Public Medievalist, “Race, Racism and the Middle
Ages: Table of Contents”
https://www.publicmedievalist.com/race-racism-middle-ages-toc/
Introduction:
Race, Racism, and the Middle Ages: Tearing Down the “Whites Only” Medieval
World by Paul B. Sturtevant Introducing a new Public Medievalist
series: taking on the white-supremacist ideas of the medieval past, and
exploring the stories of people of color in the Middle Ages.
Part
I: A Brief History of a Terrible Idea: The “Dark Enlightenment”
by
Amy S. Kaufman White supremacists
promote a bizarre theory: that the Enlightenment was the real “Dark Ages”.
……
Part XLV: Dear Tolkien Fans: Black People
Exist
by
Christina Warmbrunn
Tolkien
fan communities can be hostile places for Black fans. Just because Tolkien’s
work has white supremacy embedded in it does not mean that fans should embrace
or replicate it.
[Note 10]
2022
Oct 20 The Brussels Times
“New
Swedish government with support of far-right party takes on socio-economic
problems”
……
First,
members of their party will head four important
parliamentary committees: the judiciary-, foreign affairs-, economy- and labour
market committees. Second, and importantly, the Sweden Democrats will
have political staff at the Government Offices.
Wiki, Sweden Democrats
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden_Democrats
[Note 11]
2021
0428 European Center for Populism
Studies
Kenes, Bulent. (2021). “NMR: A
Nordic neo-Nazi organization with aims of establishing totalitarian rule across
Scandinavia.” ECPS Organisation Profiles. European Center for Populism Studies (ECPS). April 28, 2021. https://doi.org/10.55271/op0008
Right-wing
extremism and national socialism (Nazism) are not a new phenomenon in Sweden.
White supremacists or neo-Nazis have a long history in the country. Nordic Resistance
Movement (Nordiska motståndsrörelsen, NMR) rests on this
century-long history of Swedish Nazi and Neonazi activism. Including racism,
antisemitism, anti-immigration, and anti-globalisation stances with violent
tendencies, NMR which aims to overthrow the democratic order in the Nordic
region and establish a national socialist state, has become the primary force
of white power in Sweden and other Nordic countries.
Wiki,
NMR
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nordic_Resistance_Movement
zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/北歐抵抗運動
2021 January Television
& New Media 22(2):166-185
“Affective Practice of Soldiering: How Sharing Images Is
Used to Spread Extremist and Racist Ethos on Soldiers of Odin Facebook Site”
Two
months after their founding in December 2015, the Soldiers of Odin launched a Facebook
group and rapidly gained nearly 50,000 supporters. While the group was founded
in Kemi, Finland, it gained international attention and support, mainly through
its social media presence. In the following years, subgroups emerged in at
least thirteen European countries, including Sweden, Norway, Belgium, the Netherlands,
Germany, and the United Kingdom as well as in the United States, Canada, and
Australia. The Soldiers of Odin have also enjoyed political support,
especially from The Finns Party, a Finnish national-populist party.
[Note 12]
2021 0428 European
Center for Populism Studies
Kenes,
Bulent. (2021). “NMR: A Nordic neo-Nazi organization with aims of establishing
totalitarian rule across Scandinavia.” ECPS Organisation Profiles.
European Center for Populism Studies
(ECPS). April
28, 2021. https://doi.org/10.55271/op0008
Increasingly,
however, NMR’s media narratives are saturated by other, less explicitly
political and militant registers in which violence, violent rhetoric, and
openly racist hate speech reside in the background to give way to “lighter,”
more civil discourse—and seemingly more harmless forms of propaganda. This is
particularly present and potent in NMR’s cultural productions and online entertainment, which
includes, for example, television and talk shows, music videos, memes, poems,
and podcasts intended to amuse and entertain.
A
thesis presented to the University of
Waterloo in fulfillment of the
thesis
requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Public Issues Anthropology
Waterloo,
Ontario, Canada, 2022 © Kagan Pittman
2022
Pagan
Community Online: Social Media Affordances and Limitations in Religio-Political
Sociality by
Kagan Pittman
https://uwspace.uwaterloo.ca/bitstream/handle/10012/17897/Pittman_Kagan.pdf?sequence=5
2019
08 George Washington Unversity
SURVEYING
THE LANDSCAPE OF THE AMERICAN FAR RIGHT
Folkish Odinism in the Modern World
For those who are interested in consciously
re-establishing their link with their natural religion and spirituality, for
those interested in following a path to the illumination of the Odin
Consciousness. For those anxious to reclaim their unique heritage and play
their role in heralding a golden future, we invite you to join the Odinic Rite.
Hail the New Awakening, May Odins Light Illuminate You.
2019
Jan 3 USA Today
“’Game
of Thrones’ fans point out the irony in Trump’s ‘The Wall is coming’ parody
poster”
President Donald Trump has apparently not finished the last season of
"Game of Thrones." The president
posted an image of himself on Instagram Thursday, with the words "The Wall
Is Coming" in the GoT font, a parody of the ominous House Stark motto,
"Winter Is Coming." The slogan is over what appears to be a portion
of the existing wall that sits on the border between the U.S. and Mexico.
His
picture has amassed over 700,000 likes.
2017
Aug 14 The Root
“Game
of Thrones shows us how America treats White Supremacy”
https://www.theroot.com/game-of-thrones-showed-us-how-america-treats-white-supr-1797817865
We
have previously discussed how the “army of the dead” (the White Walkers) is a
metaphor for the white nationalist movement that seeks to slowly purge this
country of everything other than Caucasian Christians.
Although
I know this week’s episode was probably written over a year ago, in the wake of
Charlottesville, Va.’s version of Wypipo Gone Wild, here’s how episode 4,
“Eastwatch,” somehow managed to perfectly capture America’s attitude toward the
“alt-right” movement.
[Note 13]
2021 0518
Forbes
“Giuliani claims his call for ‘Trial By
Combat’ on Jan 6 shouldn’t have been taken literally as legal woes mount”
2021 0106
The Washington Post
“’Let’s have trial by combat’: How Trump and
allies egged on the violent scenes Wednesday”
Game of Thrones: Trial by combat
https://gameofthrones.fandom.com/wiki/Trial_by_combat
[Note 14]
2022 1107
People
“Republicans are trying to disqualify
thousands of Mail-in Ballots in key swing state. It’s working”
https://people.com/politics/republicans-trying-disqualify-thousands-mail-in-ballots-swing-states/
Republican officials in three battleground
states are attempting to disqualify thousands of mail-in ballots ahead of
Tuesday's midterm elections — with states tossing out ballots due to
technicalities, like incomplete dates on envelopes or only partially filled-out
witness addresses.
The Washington Post reports on three states —
Pennsylvania, Wisconsin and Michigan — where Republicans already have or are
attempting to toss out mail-in ballots for various reasons. Those states have
tight elections that could come down to a handful of votes.
