Thursday, December 9, 2021

荷蘭的「毒品國」稱號 及「養豬道德」爭論

 


我的《信報》文章(2021年12月9日A18頁) 刊登後的改良版

《荷蘭的「毒品國」稱號 及「養豬道德」爭論》

https://www1.hkej.com/dailynews/article/id/2989006

                                         許劍昭

香港青少年被發現藏毒、運毒的新聞,近乎每天都在報章出現。另一方面,野豬被「人道毁滅」引起熱議;但關於時有所聞的虐兒事件的討論,卻不成比例地少。此等現象教人想起荷蘭。

碰巧教育局11月30日公佈《價值觀教育課程架構》,就不同範疇提出學習期望,內容包括禁毒教育、媒體及資訊素養、生命教育…等。對荷蘭的發展多知道一點具參考意義。

[Note 1]

德國《明鏡》十月號專題是關於「從容忍毒品向下滑坡到『毒品恐怖』 (drug terror) 」的荷蘭,全文英譯字數超過7,800。雜誌封面描繪一位農村婦女站在風車前,右手持槍、嘴叼煙卷、左手拿着一批粉末小包,頗有震撼的感覺。

[Note 2]

荷蘭被鄰國稱為「毒品國家」(Narco State) 原因眾多,其中兩項主因分別是:

寬鬆的規管、

大量設備齊全且高水平的化驗室。

文章引用數據指出,「荷蘭製造」以其卓越的品質享有一流的聲譽,2017年生產約10億粒藥丸,合成毒品總收入約189億歐元。

加上人才濟濟,能培育新品種,一位德國海關官員稱荷蘭是歐洲的毒品超市,可以滿足歐洲 440 萬可卡因使用者。

數據還顯示,荷蘭警方在 2005-2012年間,從未啟動過一次與毒品有關的偵緝。原因之一是他們沒有設置毒品調查科,另一是法庭對販毒的處罰很輕,警方選擇將資源用於調查其他罪案。

結果是毒販日益猖獗,不同幫派為爭奪市場槍殺對手,每年約有20人在這個地下社會中被戮,甚至略作深入報導事件的記者也不能倖免。今年7月6日,著名記者Peter R. de Vries 在阿姆斯特丹,頭部遇槍擊身亡。但是這幾年警方偵查的重點,仍然是與毒品有關的謀殺案,而不是販毒本身。

歐美的「容忍毒品論」縱有千言萬語,但東拉西扯後,最終的論據是「選擇的自由」。美國傳統基金會客席研究員Doug Bandow 一篇2012年文章,寫得最直接不過,乃是個人應可「自由選擇做錯事」(free to do wrong) 。

[Note 3]

故此,選擇做錯是權利(應用這個邏輯,當上級主管批評員工做錯了,下級有權反駁,謂他/她有做錯的權利)。而選擇吸毒更是人權云云(如果追溯歷史,西方社會在某一天,可能會說林則徐禁鴉片煙是侵犯人權)。


一項2017年進行的歐洲比較研究揭示,荷蘭每年因吸毒致死的人數,從 2000年代中期的約100 人,躍升到 2010年代中期約250 人。15-34 歲青少年有 4.5%吸食可卡因,在歐洲排名第二,僅落後於英國的 4.7% (意大利和德國不到荷蘭的一半) 。而15-34歲搖頭丸使用者比率在歐洲更是鶴立雞群,高達 7.1%(排名第二的愛爾蘭低於5%)。付出這些代價的唯一好處是艾滋病感染者大減。

[Note 4]

當聲稱自由比什麼都重要時,道德的考慮在政策制定中必然被邊緣化;

當嫖賭飲蕩吹成為不受約束的時尚,公民的道德水平也必然下降。

一些學者早就指出這種危險的後果,例如J. Budziszewsi 在1988 年已著書,反駁自由主義者的六種反道德論,效果卻像泥牛入海。

[Note 5]

自由主義也許能夠把品德驅離主流社會,但總有些人堅持文以載道。既然大眾不想談論人際道德,不妨將焦點轉移,例如墮胎的道德、保護地球的道德,而養豬的道德是荷蘭最熱門的話題之一。

荷蘭是歐盟最大的肉類出口國,去年的出口高達88億歐元,但國內豬農卻屢屢受到批評。

[Note 6]

自21世紀初,至少有15項學術調查對養豬道德進行研究,發現城市居民認為,豬農至少在36方面有不符合道德的經營手法,包括不必要的閹割、每頭母豬的產子數過多、幼豬斷奶日齡過早、幼豬無母照料、每平方米豬的數量過多、缺乏泥浴、臭味過多、跑來跑去的自由太少、引起豬隻過多恐懼或焦慮…等等。豬農則反詰都市人對養豬業的實際需要一竅不通、空談理想。

[Note 7]

一眾這麼認真的研究間接反映,荷蘭的社會菁英、知識分子、成年長輩,對年輕人沉溺於嫖飲蕩吹中,或置若罔聞,或有口難言。另一方面卻跑到農舍,以義士自居,對養豬道德七嘴八舌。這種於經歷文明興衰後,道德上迷迷惘惘的苦痛狀況,在香港似有萌芽的跡象,值得略作敘述。

1588年荷蘭人為尋求更開放的貿易自由,成功擺脫西班牙統治,建立共和政體,其商船、軍艦數量冠絕歐洲諸國。1602年成立東印度公司,發展遠東貿易及執行殖民政策,先後侵佔東南亞島嶼(今之印尼) 、台灣島(1662年被鄭成功驅逐出島),但其國力逐漸被英國超越。

荷蘭於被納粹二戰時期佔領完結後,鼓其餘勇,試圖恢復對印尼的統治,鎮壓蘇加諾領導的非殖民化運動,經歷四年激烈的衝突,終於承認失敗。

[Note 8]

沮喪過後,荷蘭在國際舞台保持影響力的剩餘方法是,標榜其隨心所欲的自由(任意)文化;代價是談論人們行為的道德成為禁忌,轉而談養豬的道德。

香港經過1970-90年代盛世,日走下坡。一些人無視新加坡約束自由但無礙蒸蒸日上的模式,以為擴展自由(任意)可重振輝煌,但整個社會都在付出沉重的代價   — 道德上迷迷惘惘的苦痛。

當香港的社會菁英、成年長輩,

對貧窮的年輕人被誘使協助販毒、運毒,置若罔聞;

對富裕的中青年,在派對中願意付錢購買昂貴的毒品(例見《南華早報》2016年10月30日報導),視若無睹;

對預防虐兒的新政策要求,竟然傾向懷疑、抗拒。

這不是好現象。

[Note 9]

此外,這邊廂對虐兒背後的流行文化敗壞、語言暴力根源,探討者寥寥無幾;那邊廂於虐待動物、獵殺野豬的議論,反而萬人空巷;也不是好現象。

近期政府禁限電子煙、宣傳酗酒會致癌、推廣價值觀教育,方向正確。

關鍵是民間能否與之配合,止於至善。




 Notes for Reference

 [Note 1]

2021 1130   教育局公佈《價值觀教育課程架構》(試行版)

https://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/202111/30/P2021113000224.htm

 

[Note 2]

2021 Oct 20    

Narco-State Netherlands    The Slippery Dutch Slope from Drug Tolerance to Drug Terror

https://www.spiegel.de/international/europe/narco-state-netherlands-the-slippery-dutch-slope-from-drug-tolerance-to-drug-terror-a-4c064859-9faf-495f-b1f7-c74900910568

Drug gangs in the Netherlands have long since graduated from hashish to cocaine - and from dealing on the streets to a spree of contract killings. Police, lawyers, journalists: All are at risk of falling victim to the drug violence that has gripped the country.    By Jürgen Dahlkamp, Jörg Diehl und Roman Lehberger

The article you are reading originally appeared in German in issue 42/2021 (October 16th, 2021) of DER SPIEGEL.


[Note 3]

2012 Cato Institute

Doug Bandow, “From Fighting the Drug War to Protecting the Right to use Drugs: Recognizing a Forgotten Liberty”.

https://www.cato.org/sites/cato.org/files/articles/towards-worldwide-index-10-bandow.pdf


[Note 4]

European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addition

Netherlands Country Drug Report 2019

https://www.emcdda.europa.eu/system/files/publications/11347/netherlands-cdr-2019.pdf

 

[Note 5]

J. Budziszewski (1988), “The Nearest Coast of Darkness: A Vindication of the Politics of Virtues”, Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press.


[Note 6]

CBS, 2021 June 23

The Netherlands is the EU’s largest meat exporter   

https://www.cbs.nl/en-gb/news/2021/25/the-netherlands-is-the-eu-s-largest-meat-exporter


[Note 7]

The summary can be seen in

Tamara J. Bergstra, Bart Gremmen and Elsbeth N. Stassen, “Moral Values and Attitudes toward Dutch sow husbandry”, 2015 March 15.

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10806-015-9539-x


[Note 8]

Jennifer L. Foray (2012), “Visions of Empire in the Nazi-Occupied Netherlands”, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

 Wiki, Politionele acties

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politionele_acties

Politionele Acties (Dutch for "police actions") refers to two major military offensives undertaken by the Netherlands on Java and Sumatra against the Republic of Indonesia during its struggle for independence in the Indonesian National Revolution.[1][2] In Indonesia they are known collectively as Agresi Militer Belanda ('Dutch Military Aggressions'), although the term Aksi Polisionil is also known.

·         Operation Product took place from 21 July until 5 August 1947.[1]

·         Operation Kraai took place from December 1948 until January 1949.


[Note 9]

2016 Oct 30

SCMP, “Why bankers and cocaine are best of friends”.

https://www.scmp.com/business/article/2041361/why-bankers-and-cocaine-are-best-friends













Tuesday, November 30, 2021

拜登民主峰會: 否決共贏、預示開戰

 以「防禦威權主義」(Defending against authoritarianism)為會議三大目標之首

的2021年12月9-10日《民主峰會》,至少有三項重點務必注意。

[Note 1]


第一,

此峰會由美國總統拜登召開並主持,

繞過已有一定基礎的《哥本哈根民主高峰會》,

明顯是要確立美國的領導地位,

且搶佔為各種意識形態定調的主導權。

[Note 2]


第二,

美國國務院官網在峰會頁頂引用總統所言:

「民主不是偶然發生的。

我們必須捍衛它,為它而戰,加強它,更新它。」

另在第三段中,聲稱於政府治理、公民社會、私營業務多方面…

「民主國家面臨着最大的威脅 (greatest threat)… 」。

這等於把民主和非民主的政體、社會、經濟放在對立面,

對兩者之間的合作共贏、互惠共富,下錘否決,

置國際之間的共同利益(Common Good) 若妄如幻。

[Note 3]


第三,

美國通過這樣一個的《民主峰會》,

對威權主義的威脅營造了更真實的恐懼感。

根據近年在西方政界、學界很受重視的修昔底德現實主義思維(Thucydides’ Realism) ,

恐懼是三個發動「先發制人戰爭」(Pre-emptive War)的正當理由之一;

而另外兩項是利潤、榮耀(另文詳細參考修昔底德分析中美競爭) 。

[Note 4]


倘若擴闊一點視野,在中俄合作的影響下,

美元及美國霸權地位確實受到嚴重挑戰。

因此,即使是慘勝,假若挫俄襲華有一絲勝利的機會,

美國仍要開戰。


Notes

[Note 1]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summit_for_Democracy

The Summit for Democracy is a virtual summit to be hosted by the United States "to renew democracy at home and confront autocracies abroad" on December 9–10, 2021.[1][2] The three themes are defending against authoritarianism, addressing and fighting corruption, and advancing respect for human rights.[3]


[Note 2]

zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/哥本哈根民主高峰會

哥本哈根民主高峰會 (英語:Copenhagen Democracy Summit)是一個國際會議,由民主聯盟基金會(別稱「民主聯盟」,英語:Alliance of Democracies)主辦,每年夏天在丹麥哥本哈根舉行。該會議匯集了來自世界各民主國家的政治和商業領袖,也包括現任和前任政府首腦。


[Note 3]

U.S. Department of State: The Summit for Democracy

https://www.state.gov/summit-for-democracy/

Democracy doesn’t happen by accident.

We have to defend it, fight for it, strengthen it, renew it.

-- PRESIDENT JOSEPH R. BIDEN, JR.        FEBRUARY 2021


3rd paragraph:

On December 9-10, 2021, President Biden will host the first of two Summits for Democracy, which will bring together leaders from government, civil society, and the private sector to set forth an affirmative agenda for democratic renewal and to tackle the greatest threats faced by democracies today through collective action.


[Note 4]

關於修昔底德的「先發制人戰爭」,這篇文章有非常豐富的研究:

Kinch Hoekstra, “Thucydides and the bellicose beginnings of modern political theory”, in Katherine Harloe and Neville Morley (eds.) (2012), ‘Thucydides and the Modern World: Reception, Reinterpretation and Influence from the Renaissance to the Present”, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

 

Monday, October 11, 2021

〈心跳法〉與 封城令:「護命」硬撼「維權」的話語權之爭

 《中國21-22世紀的政治哲學國際使命》

      (時事解說哲學系列模式)

論文三:

〈心跳法〉與 封城令:「護命」硬撼「維權」的話語權之爭

 

                                                     許劍昭

本文章沒有版權限制,歡迎轉貼、轉載、引用…


美國總統拜登狀控德克薩斯州《心跳法》(Texas Heartbeat Act)違憲,10月6日獲聯邦法庭發出臨時禁止令,但10月9日上訴庭允許它再次生效。


該項已於九月生效的法案明定,當胚胎能通過超聲波檢查,測得有心跳存在(通常自懷孕六週始) ,任何幫助該位懷孕婦女墮胎的人士、組織,可被公眾起訴違法,並要求賠償至少一萬美元。

[Note 1]


此法案的正反激烈爭論,不僅揭示了二戰後主導西方社會與政策的地位的「維權」理念,正受到「護命」信念的嚴重挑戰;也顯示出傳統道德觀念通過護命、保健等話題重回政治。碰巧新冠病毒大流行的限權、封城措施也引起激辯,「護命」在國際話語間已成為新趨勢、新力量。


「只要不受法律禁止,我便可為所欲為。」這類視道德如無物的說法,已被認為是過時、落後。在「新自由主義」(NeoLiberalism)的影響下,時尚的思潮是「想做就去做」,如果法律禁止我想要的,那麼就把法律改掉!例如把吸食大麻合法化(見歐美多個國家) 。


而最新的進展是修改法律、校規,讓學生自年僅四歲起,在校內可以不經父母同意選擇自己喜歡的性別,並按此使用學校設施(見蘇格蘭、美國特拉華州) 。

[Note 2]

 

自2002年始,民調機構蓋洛普詢問美國人如何評價國內的道德狀況。結果發現,認為道德水平「低下」的比例從2003年的35%,惡化到2021年的47%;若加上「勉勉強強」的評分,2021年總數達到84%。

[Note 3]


除了酗酒、吸毒、濫交、爛賭、嗜糖、酖網、欺凌…等問題愈來愈糟,美國和加拿大正同時面臨一項鴉片類止痛藥成癮的大問題,官式名稱是 Opioid Epidemic。

[Note 4]


諸種道德淪喪的原因之一是人們藉各種所謂權利,或聲色犬馬、縱慾自殘,或傷害家人、鄰居、同學、陌生人,商業客戶的身心健康。


2003年英、加兩位學者聯合提出「生物公民」(Biological Citizenship)的概念,通過易於查看的「痴肥」為切入點,主張人作為社會成員,有保持自身健康的道德責任,以減輕公共醫療資源及維生福利的沉重負擔。而政府則有治理的責任,教育及規範公民維持健康,例如參照「身體質量指數」(BMI) 作準。

[Note 5]


不問可知,這種限制消費權利、縮窄選擇自由的倡議,所得到的當然是惡評和冷遇。開明如《刺針雜誌》,也直到2008年才短短用二百字簡介。

[Note 6]


但痴肥現象日趨普遍且惡化的美國和澳洲,近年終於有學者認真研究,指出如果公眾繼續否定有維護自身健康的責任,國家的整體利益,會受到這群「病態公民」(pathological citizens)嚴重威脅(例見Kelly E. Happe 2018) 。

[Note 7]


若說痴肥是一個可以遲緩處理的問題,突如其來的新冠病毒則不能拖拖拉拉。

 

從佩戴口罩、閉關封城,到禁足隔離、接種疫苗,關注維權與護命之間的道德衝突的討論逐漸增多,而中國的封城抗疫治理更成為一種典範、基準。


但西方在「維權」觀念唯我獨尊的長期主導影響下,除了少數醫學專家,大部分公共知識分子在整個 2020 年均小心翼翼地保持中立,說些眾所週知的道理後,結論沒有立場(例見 European Sociologist 2020Dec23, Nature Human Behaviour 2020May  Vol.4)。

[Note 8]


然而此現象顯示「維權」給「護命」硬撼後,其往昔至高無上的霸氣已略有所失。


今年三月,愛爾蘭學者Vittorio Bufacchi終於提出了這個問題:我們是否有不染(新冠)病的道德義務?文章第一句坦率承認,關於大流行的個人道德討論是個「地雷區」,但在檢視傳統倫理後,他的結語這樣寫:是的,我們確實有道德義務(moral duty)避免感染這種疾病。

[Note 9]


相比「維權」涉及人際之間複雜的權力關係,「護命」的道德原則簡單易明。而此點至關重要。


被稱為「科學歷史」之父的修昔底德(Thucydides公元前460-400) ,在其著作《伯羅奔尼撒戰爭》中,敘述分別以雅典、斯巴達作為領導的兩個城邦聯盟之間,長達27年的戰爭。除了擯除迷信的事實記錄,修昔底德指出道德淪喪是雅典失敗的主因,並警告這種結合道德墮落和軍事挫折的失敗,會在未來不斷重演。


當時實施直接民主的雅典,除了內部常見的悔約違誓、派系仇殺等諸種劣行,更無視四分一的人口死於持續了3年的瘟疫,打破休戰協議,出兵遠征。倒是斯巴達的紀律雖然嚴酷但不濫殺,並於雅典最終投降後,拒絕兩個城邦盟友把所有雅典人變成奴隸的建議。


修昔底德統稱所有品德的名詞是ευηθες ,後世史學家的英譯為 ancient simplicity ,我把它中譯成「古樸」;強調重視榮耀、保家衛國的傳統美德。

[Note 10]


若以華夏文化闡釋,古樸就是敬祖畏天。畏天者,愛己而不傷害他人,悦己卻不浪費資源,富己但不侵損公利。敬祖則更單純,扶老攜幼而矣。


為了纠正二戰後過度消費、破壞生態的環保運動,正是說着護命的語言,而且不光是人命,還有動、植物的命。此等包含攜幼、畏天、護命的環保論述,硬撼消費權利的地位,已有多年。


突然崛起的抗疫封城護命道德論,除了着重扶老傳統外,還很可能會擴展到研究健康生活方式的重要性,因為接種疫苗暴露了許多人對自身健康狀況缺乏信心的醜態。


西方社會從血腥殖民到倡議民權,兜兜轉轉了六百年,以為已掌握到真理,卻突然被廣泛且大規模的「黑人的命也是命」抗議所掌摑。所謂的憲制權利,在槍彈面前只是空談,「也是命」根本上就是回歸古樸的傳統道德。

[Note 11]


儘管成功在維權的硬牆上撞開缺口的《心跳法》支持者,一般不認同嚴格的抗疫措施,但他們訴諸宗教作論據,本質上也是回歸護命的古樸傳統。


而更重要的是,這種竟然會發生在美國的「護命硬撼維權」現象,揭示物極必反,「維權」的話語霸權已到了強弩之末。「護命」則通過不同的話題,把根本的傳統古樸道德帶回政治場。


Notes

[Note 1]

2021 Oct 9

Catholic News Agency, “Texas ‘heartbeat’ abortion law temporarily reinstated amid legal fight”,

https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/249239/texas-heartbeat-abortion-law-allowed-to-take-effect-again-by-appeals-court-amid-legal-fight-in-court

 

2021 Oct 7

Yahoo News, “Federal Judge temporarily blocks Texas Heartbeat Act”.

https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/249239/texas-heartbeat-abortion-law-allowed-to-take-effect-again-by-appeals-court-amid-legal-fight-in-court

 

2021 Oct 1

NPR, “Texas’ abortion law is back in court”

https://www.npr.org/2021/10/01/1041607684/texas-abortion-law-federal-judge

A federal judge is weighing arguments on the Justice Department's emergency request to block Texas' controversial new abortion law.

 

Wiki, Heartbeat Bill

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heartbeat_bill

In 2013, North Dakota became the first state to pass a heartbeat law. In 2015, the law was ruled unconstitutional under the precedent set by the 1973 U.S. Supreme Court decision Roe v. Wade. Eleven states have proposed heartbeat bills since 2018; since 2019, such bills have passed including bills in Ohio, Georgia, Louisiana, Missouri, Alabama, Kentucky, South Carolina, and Texas, most of which lie either partly or entirely in the Bible Belt. Utah and Arkansas voted to limit the procedure to the middle of the second trimester. As of June 2021,[4] except for the Texas bill, none of the laws are in effect due to court intervention.[5][6] The Guttmacher Institute writes, "state policymakers are testing the limits of what the new U.S. Supreme Court majority might allow and laying the groundwork for a day when federal constitutional protections for abortion are weakened or eliminated entirely."[7] Texas has taken a novel approach in their wording of the legislation; rather than have the government enforce the law, private citizens will be allowed to sue the provider or anyone that helps the woman to get an abortion.

 

 

[Note 2]

Wiki, Legality of Cannabis

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legality_of_cannabis

 

2021 Aug 15

https://www.kidspot.com.au/parenting/children-as-young-as-four-can-legally-choose-their-own-gender-without-consent/news-story/dc0987d0a6033a8efc336f5b4f2866ba

Children as young as FOUR can legally choose their own gender without consent

Parents in Scotland have no control of their children's genders, and government says students are fully supported by their schools and teachers.

 

2018 Feb 20

https://www.foxnews.com/us/delaware-may-let-students-choose-their-race-gender-without-parental-consent

… schools would be required to provide access to facilities and activities that are consistent with a student's gender identity—regardless of the child's sex at birth. That includes bathrooms, locker rooms, team sports and adhering to the child's preferred name. Under the proposal, students could also choose their own race.

 

[Note 3]

2021June 16    Gallup

STORY HIGHLIGHTS

Americans overall see U.S. moral values in mostly negative terms

Record-high 66% of Republicans now rate moral values as "poor"

Record-high 46% of Democrats say moral values are improving

https://news.gallup.com/poll/351140/stable-moral-ratings-obscure-big-partisan-shifts.aspx

WASHINGTON, D.C. -- Continuing a long-term trend, Americans are discouraged about the state of moral values in the U.S., with 84% calling them "only fair" or "poor" and two-thirds believing they are getting worse rather than better. These negative evaluations differ little from what Gallup has found each year since it began measuring perceptions of the nation's values in 2002 as part of its Values and Beliefs survey, conducted annually.

 

[Note 4]

U.S. Department of Health

https://www.hhs.gov/opioids/about-the-epidemic/index.html

In 2017 HHS declared a public health emergency and announced a 5-Point Strategy To Combat the Opioid Crisis

 

U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

https://www.cdc.gov/opioids/basics/epidemic.html

Understanding the Epidemic

The number of drug overdose deaths increased by nearly 5% from 2018 to 2019 and has quadrupled since 19991.  Over 70% of the 70,630 deaths in 2019 involved an opioid. From 2018 to 2019, there were significant changes in opioid-involved death rates:

Opioid-involved death rates increased by over 6%.

Prescription opioid-involved death rates decreased by nearly 7%.

Heroin-involved death rates decreased by over 6%.

Synthetic opioid-involved death rates (excluding methadone) increased by over 15%.

 

[Note 5]

Nikolas Rose and  Carlos Novas, “Biological Citizenship”, in Aihwa Ong and Stephen Collier (eds.) (2003), ‘Global Anthropology’, Blackwell.

file:///C:/Users/kimch/Downloads/RoseandNovasBiologicalCitizenship2002.pdf

 

[Note 6]

2008 Nov 15

The Lancet, “Biocitizenship”, ny Roger Cooter

https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(08)61719-5/fulltext

For Nikolas Rose and Carlos Novas in their essay on “Biological Citizenship” (Global Assemblages, 2005) this term described new connections being made between biology and self-identity. They argued that contemporary biotechnology makes possible new ideas of what it means to be a human being. They present the human body as a fragmented, biotechnologically exploitable consumer object that can be physically reshaped by “enhancement technologies” or the consumption of new psychopharmaceuticals.

 

Moreover, this biological consumerism largely takes place in a global marketplace that is increasingly disconnected from national politics. It is in this supra-national space that people are now “made up”—not as citizens with rights and duties bound to nation states, but as biological consumers.

 

[Note 7]

Kelly E. Happe, Jenell Johnson, and Marina Levina (2018), Biocitizenship: The Politics of Bodies, Governance, and Power, NY: New York University Press.

https://nyu.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.18574/nyu/9781479845194.001.0001/upso-9781479845194

 

“ … at worst, they are seen as ‘pathological citizens’ who threaten the national body.”

 

[Note 8]

… 保持中立,說些眾所週知的道理後,結論沒有立場 …

例見

2020 Sep Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal

“The Ethics of Lockdown: Communication, Consequences, and the Separateness of Persons”, by Stephen John.

https://kiej.georgetown.edu/ethics-of-lockdown-special-issue/

 

2020 Dec 23  The European Sociologist

“Theorising — Praise of Biopolitics?  The Covid-19 Pandemic and the Will for Self-Preservation”, by Jörn Ahrens

https://www.europeansociology.org/issue-45-pandemic-impossibilities-vol-1/theorising-praise-biopolitics-covid-19-pandemic-and-will

 

[Note 9]

2021 March 16   The Conversation

“Do we have a moral duty not to get sick?”, by Vittorio Bufacchi

https://theconversation.com/coronavirus-do-we-have-a-moral-duty-not-to-get-sick-148837

 

[Note 10]

Mary Frances Williams (1998), “Ethics in Thucydides: The Ancient Simplicity”, Lanham, New York, Oxford: University Press of America Inc.

 

[Note 11]

Wiki, Black Lives Matter

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter